Field investigations

If you need detailed information, please contact with MPP, DPWT and PPWM and ask to see the draft final report
(DF/R) (2). The DF/R consists of the following volumes:

• Volume I: Summary (Khmer, English and Japanese)
• Volume II: Main Report
• Volume III: Supporting Report
• Volume IV: Databook

2.1 Waste Amount and Composition Survey (Rainy and Dry Season)

2.1.1 Waste Amount Survey

a. Objective

The data on waste generation rates obtained in this survey is then applied to elaborate the waste stream, which is used to comprehend the current flow of waste and to make future projections in the Study Area.

b. Method of the Survey

c. Results

2.1.2. Waste Composition Survey
a. Objectives

The objective of the Waste Composition Survey is to obtain data on the physical and chemical properties of wastes generated in the Study Area.

b. Method of the Survey

c. Result

Specific gravity and physical composition
The following tables show the results of the specific gravity and physical composition of the waste.

Three contents and chemical analysis
The results of the three contents and chemical analysis of the wastes are shown in the supporting report.
Table 2 - 2 : Results of Waste Composition Survey (3/3)

Classification				Total
Classification				Dry season	Rainy season	Average
Physical Composition (Wet Base)	Apparent Specific Gravity (ASG)		Kg/l	0.25	0.24	0.25
	Combustible Wastes	Paper	(%)	6.3	6.5	6.4
		Rubber and Leather	(%)	0.0	0.1	0.1
		Kitchen Waste	(%)	65.8	61.2	63.3
		Textile	(%)	2.3	2.7	2.5
		Plastic	(%)	17.1	13.8	15.5
		Grass and Wood	(%)	3.0	10.5	6.8
		Sub-total	(%)	94.5	94.8	94.6
	Incombustible Wastes	Metal	(%)	0.3	0.9	0.6
		Bottle and Glass	(%)	1.3	1.1	1.2
		Ceramic and Stone	(%)	2.1	0.9	1.5
		Others	(%)	1.8	2.3	2.1
		Sub-total	(%)	5.5	5.2	5.4
	Total		(%)	100.0	100.0	100.0

2.1.1 Findings

a. Waste amount survey

The average household waste generation ratio of 487 g/person/day is similar to other developing countries such as Sri Lanka (450-650 g/person/day in 2002) and the municipality of Panama (440-898 g/person/day in 2002). As for the household waste discharge ratio by income level, for high income households it is 668.5 g/person/day in the dry season and 646.2 g/person/day in the rainy season; for middle income households it is 545.3 g/person/day in the dry season and 501.4 g/person/day in the rainy season; and for low income households it is 445.9 g/person/day in the dry season and 435.2 g/person/day in the rainy season. The increase in the generation ratio by level is proportionate to the household income level.

It is notable that most of the daily generation amount is household waste (65.6%) followed by shop (other than restaurant) waste (17.0%)

b. Waste composition survey

General

The content of recyclable waste, including metal, paper, glass and plastics, is 23.7% in total. It is notable that plastic waste accounts for 15.5% of this 23.7%, which is very high. In Phnom Penh, it is thought that the use of PET bottles and plastic bags has spread rapidly, and they are consumed at the same level as developed countries. Plastic waste will be an obstacle in regard to proper management of the final disposal site. Therefore, countermeasures should be considered.

Household waste

Kitchen waste is the most dominant constituent, which accounts for 63.3% of the total waste composition. It seems to be natural that the use of ready-made food is not so popular in Cambodia. Therefore, waste from the kitchen for food preparation accounts for a much greater share than other types of waste. As for the household income level, the percentage of kitchen waste decreases as the household income level increases. This is because high income households generate a greater amount of other types of wastes than kitchen waste than middle and low income households. The most significant waste is “grass and wood” because, in general, only high income households can generate garden waste. The increase in paper waste also indicates the difference in lifestyle.

Other waste

· Restaurants generate the highest percentage of bottle and glass waste at approximately 11.5% in total, followed by market waste, which generates only 2.0% in total.

· Office and school wastes contain a high percentage of paper waste accounting for 29.5% and 22.7% in total, respectively.

· Street sweeping waste contains 58.0 % ceramic and stone waste, and 25.1% grass and wood waste in total respectively.

· The ratio of carbon and nitrogen contained in the waste of households, restaurants and markets were analyzed. These results indicate the conditions of these wastes are suitable for composting. The results show a C/N ratio of 15.8% to 18.3% for kitchen waste, and 24.3% to 29.2% for grass and wood waste. It can be said that the kitchen waste and grass and wood waste show typical C/N values, and are suitable for composting.

2.2 Time and Motion Survey (Rainy and Dry Season)

2.2.1 Objective of the Survey

One of the most important issues of solid waste management is to achieve a cost effective and efficient municipal solid waste collection service. There are two significant and essential factors which are considered to improve the solid waste collection service efficiency.

Besides these relevant factors, others such as, route selection, public participation, general conditions of physical infrastructure and equipment, also impact service efficiency.

The objective of this study was to obtain the following information on the current collection and haulage system for solid waste management in Phnom Penh:

· To verify collection efficiencies for the different vehicle types and collection systems used.

This information was used in the preparation of the Master Plan for Solid Waste Management for Phnom Penh.

2.2.2 Method of the Survey

2.2.3 Results of the Survey

2.2.4 Findings of the Survey

· The present fleet of collection vehicles used by CINTRI for municipal solid waste management is very old and in poor condition. Vehicle breakdowns are common, making collection management difficult and resulting in unreliable service.

· In many cases the vehicles and equipment being used for waste collection are mismatched. Researchers observed a number of cases where waste in containers was dumped on the ground and then manually shovelled into compactor vehicles because container-loading vehicles were unavailable.

· Where containers were used (0.6 m³ size), it was common to find waste overflowing the container and scattered on the ground, apparently because the container volume is too small or the collection frequency is not enough. This waste on the ground creates conditions similar to waste heaps (see below).

· Waste heaps are a common method for waste collection in many parts of Phnom Penh. This type of waste collection allows waste to be washed into the drains by rain or scattered by wind or animals. Waste entering the drainage system causes blockages. Scattered waste also creates unsanitary and unhygienic conditions in the area around the heap. Flies and bad odor affect residents and businesses nearby. The manual loading of waste from heaps is labor intensive and inefficient, not only because it requires a lot of worker time, but also because it ties up the vehicle which could be doing other collection work.

· Improper discharge habits by residents and other waste generators (such as street vendors and construction projects) were also noted as a major contributor to inefficient waste collection. Researcher observed many cases were loose waste was discharged along the road instead of placed in bags. This habit slows down the collection process. Waste was also placed along the curbside after the vehicle had already passed through the area. In areas lacking adequate collection service, waste is commonly burned, buried or dumped on vacant land and in waterways causing health and environmental problems.

· A major reduction (almost 74%) in discharge time (defined as the time required for a vehicle to enter the disposal site, discharge waste and depart from the site) was noted between dry season and wet season data. This was despite the fact that the weighbridge was installed and new weigh-in procedures added during the interval between the two data collection periods. This change was attributed to improved management at the discharge site and major improvements in on-site infrastructure as a result of the dumpsite improvement pilot project.

2.3 Public Opinion Survey (POS)

2.3.1 Objective of the Survey

There are no easy solutions to the problems related to Solid Waste Management (SWM). The SWM system should be formulated based on a precise grasp of natural and socioeconomic conditions, the state of the present SWM system and the lifestyle of local residents along with the opinions of all the people in the target area. In addition, the MSWM system should include a mechanism that increases people’s awareness and promotes public participation, because active public involvement is indispensable for a sustainable MSWM system.

An effective method for obtaining a precise grasp of the opinions of local residents is a Public Opinion Survey (POS). In particular, a POS can give us essential information for formulating the M/P, such as the way people discharge wastes in their daily lives and the level of waste tariff people are willing to pay. In addition, a POS can show us the level of people’s environmental awareness and give us a hint about acceptable approaches for local people to improve the SWM system.

Therefore, the team decided to conduct a POS, targeting all the households and business establishments in MPP, in order to obtain the basic information, which is summarized in the following paragraphs. At present, in MPP, almost all the areas of the four urban Khans are covered by the waste collection service, while many parts of the three rural Khans are left without a collection service. In the POS, the team aimed at gathering opinions of the people in the urban area on the current collection service, as well as asking the people in the rural area without a collection service how much they need waste collection services and are willing to pay for the services.

1) In the urban area where a waste collection service is already provided
Ÿ Generation and recycling of waste at the source
Ÿ Way of storing and discharging waste.
Ÿ Awareness of environmental issues, in particular SWM

2) In the rural area where there is no collection service available at present
Ÿ Generation and recycling of waste at the source
Ÿ Awareness of environmental issues, in particular SWM
Ÿ Need of waste collection service and willingness to pay

Ÿ Generation and recycling of waste at the source
Ÿ Way of storing and discharging waste
Ÿ Awareness of environmental issues in particular MSWM

The results of the survey were reflected in the draft of M/P, aiming at increasing people’s environmental awareness, improving waste collection services, examining the introduction of separate waste collection and reducing waste amount.

2.3.2 Method of the Survey

2.3.3 Results of the Survey

The results of all the questions in the questionnaire are shown in Annex 3 in the Supporting Report.

2.3.4 Findings of the Survey

As a whole, the results of the POS indicate a high environmental awareness, as shown in Annex 3 of the Supporting Report (Figure 3-5). However, it is unclear how the respondents define the term “environment” or what criteria they had when they chose the answer “they are interested in environmental issues”. It can be assumed that the meaning of “environment” is mixed with that of hygiene. It seems necessary to analyze the results with considerable care. Judging from the Japanese standard, the degree of awareness of the environment is probably not high, but more people are becoming interested in environmental issues as pollution problems such as air pollution become serious due to the increase in the traffic.

People are aware of problems close to them such as offensive odor caused by scattered waste on the street. However, they are not well informed about problems related to the disposal site.

Most respondents put their waste in proper places, but in some cases the discharge time was inappropriate. In the tropical climate, waste decomposes quickly and many people do not want keep it long at home, which often results in the discharge of waste at an inappropriate time. On the other hand, an inappropriate or irregular collection time also leads to the discharge of waste at an inappropriate time.

It is necessary for the collection service company to know the pattern of people’s daily life and their preferable collection time before deciding the collection day and time. On the other hand, local residents have to recognize the importance of following waste discharging rules and realize their responsibility. It is necessary to achieve better communication among the collection service company, local residents and local authority concerned.

In total, 80% of the household respondents and 60% of the business respondents were somehow satisfied with the current collection service. It can be said that many respondents recognized the improvements in the collection service, since CINTRI succeeded the collection service business almost one year ago.

The cross-sectional analysis of the household data showed that the degree of satisfaction had little correlation with the frequency of the service and the level of collection fee. In the case of business establishments with a collection fee over R 20,000, the respondents tended to be more unsatisfied with the collection service, but the inappropriate or irregular collection time and waste left on the street after the collection service were main reasons for dissatisfaction. In the center of the MPP, the improvement of the quality of the collection service is a problem to be solved.

Glass bottles and aluminum cans are the two main items of recycling. Papers and cardboard are rarely collected separately and recycled. At present, people in the MPP store recyclables at home for several months before a buyer comes to their houses to collect them. It is necessary to check whether or not more frequent visits by the waste buyers will promote recycling activities.

2.4 Social Environmental Survey in and around the Final Disposal site

As the situation of the Stung Mean Chey disposal site is getting worse, it has become an urgent issue for the MPP and PPWM to improve the operation and management of the dumpsite. A lot of people are living around the disposal site, while hundreds of waste pickers are working at the disposal site. Therefore, it is necessary for the MPP to grasp the socio-environmental situation in and around the final disposal site before finalizing the disposal site improvement plan, in order avoid or mitigate the possible negative impacts of the improvement plan on these people.

The Social Environmental Survey (SES) is divided into two parts: (1) a survey of local residents living around the disposal site and (2) a survey of waste pickers working at the disposal site. Therefore, the results of the survey are summarized separately.

2.4.1 Objective of the Survey

a. Local Resident Survey

The main purpose of the local resident survey is to obtain the opinions of people who are living around the disposal site about the current situation of the site and its impact on their living conditions and surrounding environment. The results of the survey were reflected in the draft of the Master Plan on municipal solid waste management.

b. Waste Picker Survey

The goal of the waste picker survey is to avoid or mitigate the negative impact of the operation and management improvement plan for the disposal site on the weak such as waste pickers.

PPWM has to improve its operation by introducing the sanitary landfill method as soon as possible in order to prevent the disposal site from further polluting the surrounding areas. One of the biggest obstacles for PPWM in introducing the sanitary landfill operation is the existence of waste pickers. At present, a large number of waste pickers are working around heavy vehicles such as collection vehicles and bulldozers, which would make it extremely difficult for PPWM to implement the improvement plan.

One possible solution is to eliminate waste pickers from the disposal site. Considering the huge economic discrepancy between Phnom Penh and rural areas, more migration from rural areas to Phnom Penh is expected and there would be a continuous supply of waste pickers. It is, therefore, an unrealistic measure to eliminate waste pickers from the disposal site right now. The only option left for PPWM is to find an effective method for conducting the sanitary landfill operation with the existence of waste pickers.

The biggest problem for PPWM in working with waste pickers is the absence of order. At present, waste pickers are out of PPWM’s control, flocking together around collection vehicles. This results in not only incomplete landfill operation but also the frequent occurrence of accidents. The control of waste pickers by introducing some kinds of rules is a precondition for PPWM to start sanitary landfill operation. However, it is impossible to implement rules at the disposal site without the consensus and cooperation of the waste pickers. Therefore, it is necessary to know the details of the working conditions of waste pickers and their opinion about current conditions and possible solutions in order to establish acceptable rules both for PPWM and waste pickers.

The waste picker survey aimed to obtain information on the problems they face while working at the dumpsite and opinions about acceptable solutions through a series of focus group meetings and an interview survey. In particular, the team aimed to reach some kind of consensus with waste pickers about the introduction of rules at the disposal site at the end of the meetings. Additional observation surveys along with a reference survey were conducted to obtain the details of the current situation, in particular about child waste pickers. This is because a large number of child waste pickers are working at the disposal site, which would make it more difficult for PPWM to establish appropriate rules and to put them into practice. The results of these surveys were reflected in the draft of the M/P, in particular the improvement plan for the dumpsite.

2.4.2 Method of the Survey

2.4.3 Results of the Survey

The results of all the questions in the questionnaire are shown in Annex 4 in the Supporting Report.

2.4.4 Findings of the Survey

a. Local Resident Survey

· Participants of the local resident meeting were selected from low-income and vulnerable groups.

· Almost all the local resident meeting participants and interview survey respondents were aware of the environmental degradation caused by the disposal site, but they had not pushed either MPP or PPWM hard to improve the operation of the disposal site. Some participants expressed their wishes that the disposal site be moved somewhere else, but they recognized it was not a fundamental solution.

· All the meeting participants and interviewees generally agreed with the improvement of the disposal site.

· Both local authorities and local residents were concerned about waste pickers. They hope that the improvement plan will decrease the number of accidents at the disposal site. There were few conflicts between local residents and waste pickers, although there were some conflicts among waste pickers.

· In Sangkat Stung Mean Chey, recycling activities were much more active than in other areas. The accumulation of depots and recycling factories probably gave local people incentives to earn a small amount of money by recycling waste. Furthermore, it is estimated that some local residents were working as part-time waste pickers.

b. Waste Picker Survey

· In total, more than 100 waste pickers participated in either a focus group meeting or an interview survey. The number was about one third of the total waste pickers, and most participants were selected from those who had participated in community development projects. In other words, they were selected from those who were more cooperative than others, and there might be other waste pickers who have different opinions about the improvement plan. Therefore, it is necessary to make sure of the intention of the whole waste picker population before the improvement plan is implemented.

· Waste pickers face various problems. Both their working and living conditions were affected by the environmental degradation caused by the disposal site.

· Waste pickers collected various recyclables at the disposal site. Since many of the valuable items such as aluminum cans and glass bottles were separated at the source or collected on the street before reaching to the disposal site, soft/hard plastic and organic waste became main sources of income along with aluminum cans and glass bottles.

· Most of them were seeking not only safety but also security at the disposal site. They agreed that some kind of rules were necessary to bring about both safety and security at the disposal site.

· Several participants insisted that children also be allowed to continue to work at the disposal site.

· Even though the number of child waste pickers has decreased due to the efforts of NGOs, there is still a large number of child waste pickers and they contribute a lot to their families.

2.5 Cleansing Workers Survey

2.5.1 Objectives

The objective of this study was to evaluate current working and health conditions for cleansing workers involved in solid waste management in Phnom Penh. This information will be used in the preparation of the Master Plan for Solid Waste Management for Phnom Penh.

2.5.2 Method of the Survey

2.5.3 Results of the Survey

2.5.4 Findings of the Survey

This survey was carried out from May 15 to 30. Garbage collection workers, drivers, street sweepers and supervisors working for the private service provider, CINTRI were interviewed to establish data on salary and living and working conditions. The primary collection workers called Self-Help Group (SHG) members were also interviewed. These workers have formed groups that function as worker cooperatives to provided contracted services to PPWM or CINTRI for manual waste collection with pushcarts in areas where access is difficult for the standard collection vehicles.

Street sweepers received the lowest salaries of all workers interviewed. The average salary was reported to be about $35.00. Collection workers reported monthly salaries of roughly $44 dollars per month. Drivers and supervisors report $62.50 and $130.00 per month respectively. In addition to salaries, all staff members receive a uniform, basic medical insurance, holiday pay and a meal allowance. Most CINTRI staff reported that they work about 8.5 hours per day; however, when lunch and other breaks are subtracted, the actual work time was found to be approximately 7.5 hours per day.

Salary levels for SHG members were found to be higher at $55 per month; however, they lacked the benefit package (holiday, medical, etc…) provided to workers in the private sector. SHG members are encouraged to sort waste to remove recyclables during collection. Sale of these items provides additional income for SHG members. CINTRI rules prohibit their staff from collecting materials, although a number of staff report that they do occasional collect items for sale. Interviews with sweepers and waste collectors revealed that in almost all cases additional family members must work to provide additional income to help the family survive.

Information on salary levels and employee benefits was later used in preparation of the cost estimated for the SWM master plan.

Most workers interviewed indicated that they are concerned about health hazards related to their work. A number of health problems were reported by workers, with headaches, fever and respiratory problems being the most common. Most workers use some sort of safety equipment, but the employer provides only about 67% of the equipment used. Provision of appropriate safety equipment will be an important consideration for future SWM planning.

2.6 Medical Institutions Survey

2.6.1 Objectives and Definitions

a. Objectives of the Study

Medical waste requires appropriate treatment and disposal based on its physical, chemical and pathological properties. For example, as this waste is handled carelessly, medical staff sometimes injure themselves with sharps. Moreover, when medical waste is disposed of together with general waste, the toxic chemicals and pathogens that it contains may have a grave impact, whether directly on the staff in charge of collection and landfill work, or indirectly on the surrounding environment and the residents living near the disposal sites. Adequate care needs to be taken in its treatment and disposal.

This survey for medical institutions aims to elucidate how infectious, hazardous and general waste generated by medical institutions in the Phnom Penh city is handled, treated and disposed of. The results of this study should also be useful for the establishment of the future medical waste management system necessary in the Phnom Penh city.

b. Definition of Waste Generated in Medical Institutions

The WHO (World Health Organization) defines the waste generated in a medical institution as “health-care waste”. In this questionnaire, it is divided into two; i.e. medical waste (hazardous healthcare waste or healthcare risk waste) and general waste (non-risk healthcare waste).

Medical waste in this questionnaire is hazardous healthcare waste of WHO classification. A detailed classification of medical waste is summarized in the table below.

Waste Category	Description and examples
1. Infectious waste	Waste suspected to contain pathogens e.g. laboratory culture; waste from isolation wards; tissues, materials, or equipment that have been in contact with infected patients; excreta
2. Pathological waste	Human tissues or fluids e.g. body parts; blood and other body fluids; fetuses
3. Sharps	Sharp waste e.g. needles; infusion sets; scalpels; knives; blades; broken glass
4. Pharmaceutical waste	Waste containing pharmaceuticals e.g. pharmaceuticals that are expired or no longer needed; items contaminated by or containing pharmaceuticals (bottles, boxes)
5. Genotoxic waste	Waste containing substances with genotoxic properties e.g. waste containing cytostatic drugs (often used in cancer therapy); genotoxic chemicals
6. Chemical waste	Waste containing chemical substances e.g. laboratory reagents; film developer; disinfectants that are expired or no longer needed; solvents
7. Wastes with high content of heavy metals	Batteries; broken thermometers; blood-pressure gauges; etc.
8. Pressurized containers	Gas cylinders; gas cartridges; aerosol cans
9. Radioactive waste	Waste containing radioactive substances e.g. unused liquids from radiotherapy or laboratory research; contaminated glassware, packages, or absorbent paper; urine and excreta from patient treated or tested with unsealed radionuclide; sealed sources

（Source）Safe management of wastes from health-care activities, WHO Geneva, 1999

General waste in this questionnaire is non-risk healthcare waste of WHO classification. It comes mostly from the administrative and housekeeping functions of medical institutions and may also include waste generated during the maintenance of medical institutions.

2.6.2 Method of the Survey

2.6.3 Results of the Survey

The results of all the questions in the questionnaire are shown in Annex 6 in the Supporting Report.

2.6.4 Findings

Since Phnom Penh is the capital, it is the city of the highest population growth in the country. In parallel with population growth, the number of hospitals, polyclinics, clinics and health care centers has remarkably grown too, thus generating a larger volume of medical waste than the other cities and provinces. The findings of the survey that we conducted in May and June 2003 are described in the following.

a. Waste Generation

a.1 Waste Unit Generation Rate

a.1.1. Medical Waste

The medical waste generation rate in Phnom Penh was calculated for hospitals, polyclinics, clinics and health care centers. The rate can be obtained by dividing the waste amount (i) by the number of beds taking account of bed occupancy or (ii) by the sum of medical staff (full time and part time), in-patients and out-patients.

As for either the generation rate per bed or the generation rate per person, the health centers have higher figures than the other categories.

As indicated in the table, the proportion of the medical waste generation rate in Phnom Penh City is still lower if compared with other countries in the world.

Generation Source	Base of Calculation (bed)	Bed Occupation Rate	Generation of Medical Waste (kg/day)	Unit Generation Rate (kg/bed/day)
1. Hospital	2,593	39.8 %	269.97	0.262
2. Poly-clinic	329	19.5 %	20.04	0.312
3. Clinic	100	23.0 %	6.05	0.263
4. Health center	92	31.5 %	27.58	0.952
Total	3,114	36.9 %	323.64	0.282

Generation Source	Base of Calculation (person)	Generation of Medical Waste (kg/day)	Unit Generation Rate (kg/person/day)
1. Hospital	13,854	269.97	0.0195
2. Poly-clinic	734	20.04	0.0273
3. Clinic	272	6.05	0.0222
4. Health center	449	27.58	0.0614
Total	15,309	323.64	0.0211

Country/City	Generation of General Waste (kg/bed/day)	Generation of Medical Waste (kg/bed/day)
Santiago	1.9187	0.6561
Chile	5.3235	1.6598
Latin America¹⁾	3	0.60 (=20%)
Denmark	---	1.3
Mexico City	4.73 - 5.38	---
Netherlands	2.3 - 6.5	---
Portugal	---	---
Spain	4 - 4.5	0.4 - 0.5
United Kingdom	2.5 - 3.3	---
USA	4.1 - 5.24	---
Turkey (Adana)²⁾		0.77
Turkey (Mersin)²⁾		0.83

Note: 1) Average assumed generation for Latin America according to Pan American Health Organization and World Health Organization (/NK3/).

a.1.2. General Waste

The general waste generation rate from hospitals, polyclinics, clinics and healthcare centers in Phnom Penh City are shown in the table below. As in the case of medical waste, the generation unit of general waste was calculated in two ways. The general waste generation rates of the hospitals and health centers are close and three to four times higher than those of the poly-clinics or clinics.

Generation Source	Base of Calculation (bed)	Bed Occupation Rate	Generation of General Waste (kg/day)	Unit Generation Rate (kg/bed/day)
1. Hospital	2,593	39.8 %	5,339.9	5.174
2. Poly-clinic	329	19.5 %	68.0	1.060
3. Clinic	100	23.0 %	30.2	1.313
4. Health center	92	31.5 %	146.9	5.069
Total	3,114	36.9 %	5,585.0	4.861

Generation Source	Base of Calculation (person)	Generation of General Waste (kg/day)	Unit Generation Rate (kg/person/day)
1. Hospital	13,854	5,339.9	0.385
2. Poly-clinic	734	68.0	0.093
3. Clinic	272	30.2	0.111
4. Health center	449	146.9	0.327
Total	15,309	5,585.0	0.365

a.2 Waste Generation Amount

a.2.1. Medical Waste

The figure below shows the process of estimating the medical waste generation amount from all the medical institutions in the city, taking the example of hospitals. The solid lines were the procedure originally intended by the team. The total waste amount could have been estimated in two ways: one using the unit generation rate per employee per day and the other using the unit generation rate per occupied bed per day, both of which were calculated in the previous section.

These two ways, however, necessitate data of the number of employees (indicated in Box E in the figure) or the number of beds and bed occupancy rates (in Box F in the figure) of all the medical institutions in the city. Unfortunately, however, only the data of the number of hospitals, poly-clinics and clinics together with health centers were available as shown in the Annex 6.

Therefore, the team took the procedure indicated by the dotted lines. In this procedure, E=BH/A and F=CH/A, and the final output is simply given by DH/A. In other words, the estimation was based on the generation unit per institution.

The available information did not provide the number of clinics and the number of health centers individually, but the total number (822) of these two types of institutions. Since there are many more clinics than health centers in the city, the team assumed that the six health centers that were surveyed were all the health centers existing in the city and all the rest (816) were clinics.

The estimated medical waste generation is shown in the table below. The medical waste amount from all the medical institutions in the city is calculated at about 1 ton per day.

This figure may be an underestimation since the generation unit per institution for the clinics is very small while its number was assumed to be very large. Furthermore, using the generation unit per institution can lead to a wrong estimation because it does not take the scale variation of institutions into account. The team recommends the Cambodian side to gather information on medical institutions to allow more precise estimation.

Generation Source	Studied Medical Institutions		All Medical Institutions in Phnom Penh
Generation Source	Nos. (A)	Total Daily Medical Waste Amount (D)	Nos. (H)	Grand Total of Daily Medical Waste Amount (DH/A), (kg/day)
1. Hospital	12	269.97	15	337.5
2. Poly-clinic	14	20.04	33	47.2
3. Clinic	9	6.05	816	548.5
4. Health center	6	27.58	6	27.6
Total	41	323.64	870	960.8

a.2.2. General Waste

The table below shows the estimated general waste generation amount from all the medical institutions in the entire city. The estimation method taken was the same as that for the calculation of medical waste amount.

As shown in the table, the total general waste amount from all the medical institutions is about 9.7 tons. Hospitals are the major generation source, followed by clinics, poly-clinics and health centers.

The unit generation rate (D/H) for the clinics is, again, very small; thus, the result may be an underestimation. More detailed information on medical institutions may give a larger total general waste amount.

Generation Source	Studied Medical Institutions		All Medical Institutions in Phnom Penh
Generation Source	Nos. (A)	Total Daily General Waste Amount (D)	Nos. (H)	Grand Total of Daily General Waste Amount (DH/A), (kg/day)
1. Hospital	12	5,339.9	15	6,674.9
2. Poly-clinic	14	68.0	33	160.3
3. Clinic	9	30.2	816	2,738.1
4. Health center	6	146.9	6	146.9
Total	41	5,585.0	870	9,720.2

a.3 Generation Forecast

The generation amount of medical waste and general waste for 2008, 2012 and 2015 was estimated according to the population growth in Phnom Penh from 2003 to 2015, and was thus calculated with the increase in the total number of beds proportional to the population increase. As shown in the following table, medical waste generation is estimated at 1,135 kg/day in 2008, 1,267 kg/day in 2012 and 1,364 kg/day in 2015.

The amount of general waste, additionally, also increases more than double from 9,719 kg/day in 2003 to 13,793 kg/day in the year 2015. In this connection, if we compare the amount of medical waste and the amount of general waste generated in the medical institutions, the amount of general waste is much greater than that of medical, almost 10 times.

Year	Population Forecast**	Medical Waste (kg/day)	General waste (kg/day)	Total (kg/day)
2003	1,199,414	961	9,720	10,681
2008	1,416,445	1,135	11,479	12,614
2012	1,581,432	1,267	12,816	14,083
2015	1,702,166	1,364	13,794	15,158

b. Observations on Medical Waste Management

b.1 Medical Waste

b.1.1. Storage

Medical waste management in big hospitals in Phnom Penh City are mostly good as they separate and store in different containers and bags; while most of the poly-clinics, clinics and health centers still mix medical waste and general waste because they do not know how to separate them. Their efforts of preventing the spread of toxic chemicals and pathogens are insufficient.

The hospitals and health centers generally have their own places for the storage of wastes while the polyclinics and clinics use secondary containers for storage. The waste storage places are commonly opened and can be flooded during the rainy season. Transmission of disease can occur through injuries from contaminated water.

b.1.2. Incineration of Medical Waste

Nineteen of the 41 medical institutions surveyed dispose of some of the medical waste with the incinerators. The table below shows the proportion of incinerated medical waste to the total medical waste amount. The medical waste amount incinerated by the 19 institutions accounted for 59% of the total generation (See Table 2‑12).

Using this result, the team estimated that about 0.4 tons out of 1 ton of the total medical waste in the whole city is incinerated, taking into account the fact that most medical institutions that have incinerators are the hospitals. Assuming the proportion of incineration residue to the original waste amount to be 15%, the ash after incineration is about 0.06 tons.

Waste Categories/Types		Incineration Method		Other Methods		Total Generation
Waste Categories/Types		kg/day	% to total	kg/day	% to total	kg/day	%
Medical waste	Infectious waste	94.5	82	21.04	18	115.54	100
	Pathological waste	76.33	63	44.63	37	120.96	100
	Sharps	16.49	57	12.28	43	28.77	100
	Pharmaceutical waste	3	87	0.43	13	3.43	100
	Genotoxic waste	-	0	13.57	100	13.57	100
	Chemical waste	1	30	2.29	70	3.29	100
	Radioactive waste	-	0	38.08	100	38.08	100
	Total	191.32	59	132.32	41	323.64	100

Problems of incineration are twofold. One is that not all sorts of waste which need special treatment undergo incineration, or any other comparative treatment measures. As a result, not a small quantity of medial waste, which threatens human health, is disposed of without due attention.

Secondly, existing incinerators are not functioning well. Their ability to make medical waste safe and stable is uncertain due to their overly simple structure. The team found that the incinerators in most hospitals and some health centers in Phnom Penh are operated at a low temperature, probably causing incomplete combustion and the release of dioxins into the atmosphere. Their performance should be carefully assessed and countermeasures should be examined.

b.1.3. Waste Discharge

Most medical institutions in Phnom Penh store waste separately. Their waste, however, ends up mixed with general waste in many cases, either by waste collectors or by the staff of the medical institutions when discharged. It is finally disposed of at the municipal landfill, where a number of vulnerable waste pickers are working.

b.1.4. Collection

Waste collection is normally done by the private company, CINTRI, to which collection work has been contracted out by the city. Their collection frequency at most of the surveyed institutions is as high as once per day. As medical waste contains materials which putrefy rapidly, such frequent collection service is important.

Some institutions transport medical wastes to an off-site treatment facility at Calmet Hospital and a small amount of institutions transport wastes to Wat Preah Put (local name of pagoda) for burning.

b.1.5. In-house Collection System

In-house collection is carried out daily, normally by workers of the facilities themselves. Wastes at the point of origin are mostly contained in small plastic bins with plastic bags of different colors. The workers collect the primary bins or containers of medical waste, which is mixed with solid wastes from other rooms and buildings, to store in secondary containers or in places within the premises of the facilities. Some of the primary bins or containers used for general and medical wastes have not been labeled and are not covered or locked. The collection system differs from one facility to another and in many cases waste is stored in a central collection point.

b.2 General Waste

The system for collecting general waste within the hospitals, polyclinics, clinics, and health centers is similar to medical waste collection. As reported earlier, general waste is usually stored separately from medical waste, but in many medical institutions they are mixed together when discharged.

Medical institutions in the whole city generate about 9,700 kg/day of general waste daily, almost all of which is collected and transported by CINTRI.

c. Financial Observation

One hundred percent of the surveyed medical institutions in Phnom Penh pay a collection fee for medical waste as well as general waste. Their payment ranges from 5-100 USD for hospitals, 5-50 USD for polyclinics, and 5-20 USD for clinics and health centers.

Thirty-seven of the institutions stated their satisfaction with the waste collection and disposal services. The reasons for dissatisfaction of the remaining four medical institutions are that waste is not separated in different bins, the collection workers improperly load the waste into the truck allowing the refuse to fall down on the street, and the collection and disposal fees are expensive. Six of the medical institutions surveyed, including two hospitals, two polyclinics, one clinic and one health center, complained about the waste collection procedure in the year 2002. Even so, they are still willing to pay the fee corresponding to appropriate collection, treatment and disposal of medical waste.

d. Overall evaluation

The team concludes that the management system of medical waste in Phnom Penh requires much improvement. The important issues revealed by the present survey are as follows:

· The separation of medical waste is not adequate. Although it is often separated from general waste, in the end they are disposed of together.

· One reason for this is that neither the staff of the medical institutions nor the waste collection workers are fully aware of the possible risks posed by medical waste.

· The second, and probably fundamental, reason is that there are no or only a few facilities that can appropriately treat medical waste in the city. This makes the medical staff and the collection workers reluctant to strictly separate medical waste.

The leadership of the responsible authorities including the Ministry of Health and MPP in the development of a medical waste management system, particularly in raising public awareness of health risks, should be urgently strengthened.

2.7 Factory Survey

2.7.1 Objectives and Waste Flow

a. Objectives

1. To obtain basic data for the estimation of current industrial (factory) waste (IW) generation and the forecast of future IW generation in order to formulate an IW management master plan (M/P);

2. To identify current IW management at generation sources, i.e. on-site: storage, reuse, recycling, waste exchange, treatment and disposal, and off-site: collection/transportation, reuse, recycling, waste exchange, treatment and disposal;

3. To research needs of reuse/recycling of IW according to the categories of industries and/or industrial wastes (IWs); and

4. To get the opinions of factories (generation sources) regarding IW management and the improvement of waste management.

5. To use the result of this survey for the formulation of a SWM master plan for Phnom Penh

b. Waste flow

Through this factory survey, the generation amount, on-site reuse/recycling and treatment/disposal amount, collection/transportation amount and off-site reuse/recycling and treatment/disposal amount should be understood. An IW flow should then be developed as shown in the following figure.

c. Work Flow

2.7.2 Method of the Survey

2.7.3 Results of the Survey

The results of all the questions used in the factory survey are shown in Annex 7 of the Supporting Report.

2.7.4 Findings of the Survey

a. Current Industrial Waste Management (IWM)

a.1 Waste Separation

The factories that separate non-HW and HW either thoroughly or partly accounted for 81%; hence, the separation of non-HW and HW seemed to be general practice.

In reality, however, when asked the generation amount of each type of waste, all factories but one answered only the generation amount of non-HW; there was only one factory that answered the generation amount of hazardous waste.

It is anticipated that this happened because the definition of HW and non-HW is not clear, and/or it is not well known to the factories.

a.2 Storage, Intermediate Treatment and Reuse/Recycling

Eighteen of the 32 factories (56%) store waste within the factories. The reason for waste storage for all but one factory was temporary storage before collection. The rest stores waste prior to intermediate treatment, which dries waste to be used as fuel.

To the question about the future plans for reuse/recycling, most of the factories (30 out of 32) answered that they do not have any such plans.

Therefore, it is considered that it is not popular for factories to reuse/recycle or treat waste on-site, and they are not well motivated to do so.

a.3 Collection, Off-site Treatment and Reuse/Recycling, Disposal

It is interesting to know that as many as 24 factories receive the collection service of Sarom Trading, which is a company that collects, transport and treats HW. It can be presumed that the factories using Sarom Trading generate HW. It should be noted that the factories using CINTRI do not necessarily generate only non-HIW, and there is a possibility for HIW and general waste to be mixed and collected together. In fact, there was a factory that answered that it generates HW but also said that it discharges its waste to CINTRI.

Most factories do not know about the off-site treatment or reuse/recycling of waste. The factories’ lack of interest in the fate of the waste that they generate is a problem. The factories should know how non-HW and HW are differentiated, and how each of them should be colleted, transported, treated and disposed of.

b. Future Management of IW

To the question about future IW generation, 27 factories answered that it will increase more or less, and 30 factories replied they will not change their IWM, indicating that there is no future plan for waste reduction. It is anticipated that many factories do not have future vision of waste management.

c. Financial Matters

Replies about off-site disposal costs were obtained from 28 factories out of 32. The cost per unit waste weight is shown in the table below.

Data used for the calculation are the total waste generation amount of the factory and the off-site disposal cost regardless of the type of waste. As the table shows, the average unit cost varies from sector to sector; it ranges from 8.2 US$/ton for G02 (textile and apparel) to 96.6 US$/ton for G01 (food, beverage and tobacco). It was also found that the unit cost varies from factory to factory within the same industrial sector.

Category	Answer	Off-site Disposal Unit Cost (US$/ton)
Category	Answer	Average	Maximum	Minimum
G01	2	96.6	190.5	2.6
G02	2	8.2	14.2	2.3
G03	21	93.6	372.4	0.4
G08	1	51.5	51.5	51.5
G09	2	53.9	76.9	30.9
Total	28	83.4	-	-

d. Evaluation of the Present IW system

About half of the factories surveyed (47%) said that the present IWM has problems.

One of the major problems they have is that they do not know the difference between hazardous and non-hazardous waste (7 factories). This conforms to the problem of the lack of a clear definition of non-HW and HW, as the team pointed out earlier.

Another major problem expressed by the factories was that the reuse and recycling of industrial waste is non-existent or limited (11 factories). Although there were only a few factories that have future reuse or recycling plans, it seems that some factories have noticed the necessity to change the present waste management by reuse/recycling.

To solve these problems, the factories require the development of “hardware” such as a final disposal site or reuse/recycling market, and “software” such as guidelines and laws for IWM.

e. Waste Generation

e.1 Waste Unit Generation Rate

The unit generation rate of waste from factories in each industrial sector was calculated. The unit generation rate is, in this case, expressed by generation per employee.

It was found that the waste unit generation rate varies according to the industrial sector.

Factory Code	Generation Amount (tons/day)	No of Employees	Unit Generation Rate (kg/employee/day)
G01	1.522	391	3.893
G02	2.062	5,043	0.409
G03	14.716	58,016	0.254
G08	0.019	56	0.339
G09	0.429	504	0.851
Total	18.748	64,010	0.293

e.2 Waste Generation Amount

The team estimated the IW generation amount from all the factories in the entire city as shown in the table below. For the waste generation unit of the industrial sectors which were not covered by the present factory survey, the average of the unit generation rates of the industrial sectors covered by the present survey was substituted. The unit generation rate of G09 (others) obtained from the present survey was applied to G09.

As a result, the total IW amount from factories in the whole city was calculated at about 58 tons. The major sources were textile factories (35 tons/day) and leather factories (13 tons/day), accounting for 82% together.

Type of Factory	Factories in Phnom Penh	No of Employees	Unit Generation Rate (kg/employee/day)	Generation Amount (kg/day)
Type of Factory	No	persons	Unit Generation Rate (kg/employee/day)	Generation Amount (kg/day)
G01	21	2,440	3.893	9,499
G02	23	30,687	0.409	12,551
G03	179	137,595	0.254	34,949
G04	10	1,354	0.293	397
G05	4	344	0.293	101
G06	9	761	0.293	223
G07	3	145	0.293	42
G08	2	112	0.339	38
G09	1	504	0.851	429
Total	252	173,942	---	58,229

f. Waste Flow

In order to understand the waste flow, the team estimated the recycling, treatment and disposal amount of waste from 32 factories.

From the survey results, on-site recycling is merely 0.1%, and the rest of the waste is discharged outside. CINTRI and Sarom Trading have an equal share of the waste collection service. Assuming that waste collected by CINTRI goes to the municipal landfill, 50% of waste from factories is disposed of with general waste. Whether or not this practice must be stopped immediately should be carefully considered since not all the waste from factories is hazardous. A more detailed survey should be carried out and measures should be taken, if necessary, to prevent HIW from being mixed with GIW.

Sarom Trading, which is known as a HW treatment company, collects the other half of waste from the factories. The study, however, did not make clear whether all of what they receive is hazardous. There is no sufficient information to evaluate the waste management activity of this company.

Factory Code	Recycling Amount (kg/day)	Collection Amount (kg/day)				Total
Factory Code	Recycling Amount (kg/day)	1 CINTRI	2 CINTRI /Sarom	3 Sarom	4 Others	Total
G01	0.021	0.017		1.127	0.357	1.522
G02				2.062		2.062
G03		8.964	0.657	5.095		14.716
G08		0.019				0.019
G09			0.429			0.429
Total	0.021	9	1.086	8.284	0.357	18.748
	0.1%	48.0%	5.8%	44.2%	1.9%	100.0%

The team developed the waste flow shown below. It should be noted that the present survey did not give data on the reuse/recycle or intermediate treatment of waste after discharged from factories. Therefore, the waste flow does not express the whole waste flow of IW.

2.8 Recycling Market Survey

2.8.1 Objectives of the Survey

· To understand the trends and scale of the present recycling market and analyze future market demands for recycling materials in Phnom Penh.

· To use the results of this survey for the formulation of a SWM master plan for Phnom Penh

2.8.2 Method of the Survey

2.8.3 Results of the Survey

2.8.4 Findings of the Survey

a. Amount of Materials for Recycling

From the present survey, the team obtained the average amount of each sort of recycled material for each recycling industry per day (e.g. average amount of paper recycled by a paper recycling company per day, or average amount of PET bottles recycled by an itinerant per day, etc.). These figures are multiplied by the total number of companies of each recycling industry in order to estimate total amount of materials for recycling.

The table below shows the total amount of each recycling material calculated in the aforementioned manner. It was found that the major recycling materials are paper and metal, accounting for 40.3% and 20.9%, respectively. This is rather natural since these materials can be easily recycled and their recycling is profitable.

Type of Waste		Amount of Materials
Type of Waste		kg/day	%
RW01-1	Office paper	5,060	11.2%
RW01-2	Cardboard	13,200	29.2%
RW02-1	Pet bottle	520	1.2%
RW02-2	Plastics	5,755	12.7%
RW06-1	Aluminum	1,905	4.2%
RW06-2	Ferrous/Ferric	7,317	16.2%
RW06-3	Others	217	0.5%
RW07-1	Glass bottle	1,991	4.4%
RW07-2	Glass others	4,500	10.0%
RW09	Food waste	705	1.6%
RW11	Others	4,000	8.8%
Grand Total		45,170	100.0%

The present survey did not involve companies that recycle textile, auto parts, oil, or other material that can be easily recycled. Since the team has observed recycling activities of these kinds of waste in the city, there should be recycling systems that were not covered by the present survey. It is recommended to carry out another recycling market survey similar to the present one but in a larger scale to attain a more comprehensive picture of the recycling market.

b. Treatment/Disposal

In this survey, what the recycling companies do was almost limited to simple treatment works including sorting and crushing.

It was found that there are small factories (to be called handicraft workshop) that process waste such as paper, plastic and metal. As for PET bottles and other kinds of plastics, there was an example of exporting those wastes to Vietnam. This fact implies that there may not be large-scale recycling facilities to receive them in Cambodia.

c. Pollution Control and Monitoring

Nineteen recycling companies out of 20 did not carry out pollution control or monitoring. Since most of the surveyed companies only sort or crush waste, it may be not highly necessary to seriously consider the environmental influences. Crushing, however, may require measures to prevent the spread of particles. Moreover, other waste recycling methods, which are associated with pollution risks, may be introduced in Phnom Penh in the near future. It is recommended to gradually diffuse the necessity to control and monitor pollution to the recycling factories and encourage them to take some anti-pollution measures.

2.9 Water Quality Survey (Rainy and Dry Season)

2.9.1 Objectives

The purpose of this work is to obtain data on the water quality of the following aspects around SMCDS.

2.9.2 Samples and Sampling Points

There were ten samples in total according to the category of the sampling points as follows:

2.9.3 Results

2.9.4 Findings

a. Findings in dry season

The survey was conducted in the dry season. The results obtained through this survey are limited for concluding all the characteristics of water quality in this region. However, some environmental pollution was recognized in the leachate, leachate drained canal and pond, groundwater, and also a river and a canal not contaminated by the SMC’s leachate.

a.1 Leachate, leachate drained canal and a pond

Table 2-29 of Annex 9 of the Supporting Report shows that the oil content in sample LE is two times over the effluent standard in Cambodia; that is, the effluent standard for pollution sources discharging wastewater into public water areas or sewers. It is not sure whether the oil content comes from mineral oil or animal and vegetable oil. This should be clarified and if found to come from mineral oil, illegal dumping of waste oil may have occurred. If so, countermeasures should be taken.

As for total mercury, LE and DR1 exceeded the effluent standard in Cambodia. Dumping of Hg contained batteries and fluorescent lamps may have caused the Hg contamination. As for Zinc, DR1 slightly exceeded the effluent standard in Cambodia.

BOD₅, COD, SS, Cl^-, HCO₃^-, and total nitrogen also exceeded the effluent standard in Cambodia or showed very high concentrations.

However, the samples of leachate seem to be concentrated because it was not flowing as it was the dry season.

a.2 Groundwater and Natural Rivers

Table 2-30 of Annex 9 of the Supporting Report shows the results of groundwater and natural rivers. As for total mercury, it is notable that all samples (MW1, MW2, MW3, NR1 and NR2) exceeded the standard in Cambodia in public water areas. Hg does not exist in normal environments except for volcano, etc. Therefore, MW1 to MW3 seem to be contaminated by SMC. However, NR1 and NR2 are far from SMC and there is no relation to SMC. The Study Team searched the upstream areas of these points, but could not find any factories. One possibility is contamination by pesticides. Pesticides that contain mercury were widely used throughout the world and are still being used in developing countries even though their use has been banned. According to FAO, although there is no data for the use of Hg containing pesticides in Cambodia, it is a quite high possibility. Although it is out of the scope of work, this should be clarified.

As for cyanide, MW1, MW2 and NR1 showed concentrations exceeding the standard in Cambodia in public water areas. However, as with mercury, it does not exist in natural environments. There is no reason for cyanide contamination so far. Even if the points are contaminated by cyanide, the results are below the WHO guideline for drinking water quality .

As for SS, MW1, MW2, NR1 and NR2 showed concentrations exceeding the standard in Cambodia in public water areas. In particular, NR2 had quite high concentrations.

a.3 Data reliability

Data marked *** are questionable or even minimum quantitative limits are higher than the standard of Cambodia. Countermeasures are required. (See 3.9.6 Conclusions)

b. Findings in rainy season

The survey was conducted in the rainy season. The results obtained through this survey are limited for concluding all the characteristics of water quality in this region. However, some environmental pollution was recognized in the leachate, leachate drained canal and pond, and groundwater.

b.1 Leachate, leachate drained canal and a pond

The above table shows that the oil content in sample LE1 and LE3 is slightly over the effluent standard in Cambodia; that is, the effluent standard for pollution sources discharging wastewater into public water areas or sewers. It is not sure whether the oil content comes from mineral oil or animal and vegetable oil. This should be clarified and if found to come from mineral oil, illegal dumping of waste oil may have occurred. If so, countermeasures should be taken.

As for total mercury, LE2 slightly exceeded the effluent standard in Cambodia. Dumping of Hg contained batteries and fluorescent lamps may have caused the Hg contamination.

It should be noted that polychlorinated biphenyl (PCB) was slightly detected from LE1, though its concentration is below the effluent standard in Cambodia. As with Hg, it can be thought that this contamination may occur from buried materials because other samples had no PCB contamination. Continuous monitoring will be needed in future.

b.2 Groundwater and Natural Rivers

The results show generally good conditions for groundwater and natural rivers. MW1A and NR1 slightly exceeded the standard in Cambodia in public water areas for BOD₅and SS.

b.3 Data reliability

Data marked *** are questionable or even minimum quantitative limits are higher than the standard of Cambodia. Countermeasures are required. (See in the chapter 3.9.6 Conclusions)

2.9.5 Conclusions

c. Review of the standard in Cambodia

The parameters of the water quality standard in Cambodia in public areas such as cyanide and PCB should be reviewed. The standard of 0.005μg/l for cyanide seems to be too low compared with that of developed countries such as Japan, and the 0μg/l of PCB is not a suitable value as a standard.

d. Strengthening of MOE laboratory work

Firstly, the MOE laboratory should consider raising the analytical level and strengthen measurement data management. The role of the analytical laboratory is to produce measurement-based information that is technically valid and of known quality. Raising the analytical level and strengthen measurement data management are essential to provide precise and accurate laboratory data. Therefore, training to develop the skill of analysts and installation of data assurance systems such as QA/QC systems are required.

Secondary, the MOE laboratory should install advanced measurement systems to meet the Cambodian standard is needed. For example, the minimum quantitative limit of cadmium and lead were higher than the standard in Cambodia in public areas. This is because the analysis methods are basic and cannot reach the level of the standards. So far, there has been no other choice for the MOE laboratory as they do not have advanced equipment which can detect levels lower than the Cambodian standard. However, environmental monitoring is an essential part of their work, so the installation of advanced equipment to apply new techniques is indispensable.

The concentrations in COD were too high in comparison to other parameters such as BOD. This is because “5220 C Closed Reflux Titrimetric”, the method for measuring COD in the MOE laboratory, is for higher concentrations of COD such as 40-400 mg/l.

The MOE laboratory should install advanced equipment and establish an advanced monitoring system.

e. Re-survey of mercury and others

In the dry season, the concentrations of mercury in samples of the river and canal in and around DKDS exceeded the public standard in Cambodia. Although they were not in excess in the rainy season, they should be re-surveyed because mercury is very toxic and can accumulate in the aquatic food chain in the case of organic mercury. As mentioned in “section 3.9.5 a. Findings in dry season” and “3.9.6 b. Findings in rainy season”, there is a possibility of contamination by pesticide. If so, the possibility of organic mercury is very high.

Therefore, not only total mercury but also organic mercury must be re-surveyed for confirmation before the operation of DKDS. The measurements of total and organic mercury are very sensitive and the concentrations are expected to be very low, so the measurements should be done by agencies which have advanced techniques such as Thai or Japanese laboratories.

Some data of other parameters should also be re-measured before implementation of the project because the results are questionable, i.e. the manganese in a sample of LE3 in the dry season, the cyanide in samples of MW1, MW2 and NR1 in the dry season. All samples of COD, cadmium and lead in samples from MW1, MW2, MW3, NR1 and NR2 in the dry and rainy seasons, as well as ammonium-N in samples from DR1, DR2 LE1, LE2 and LE3 in the rainy season should also be re-measured due to the reason mentioned above.

Accurate results of the water quality survey are quite essential as baseline data so the re-survey mentioned above must be carried out before commencement of the project operation.

2.10 Septage Sludge Survey

2.10.1 Objectives

At SMCDS septage sludge treatment facilities was constructed by DPWT in 2002 as part of the NORAD project. In this system, waste water is filtrated through sand filter and organic matters are biologically decomposed through layers of waste. This type of method is approved by MOE for the treatment of septage sludge.

Since there is little information on septage sludge brought in the disposal site, PPWM requested the study team to make a survey on septage sludge. The survey contained the following items.

2.10.2 Method of the Survey

Some data were obtained from the department of sludge waste operation, PPWM. A telephone survey was also arranged to make an interview with private collection companies.

2.10.3 Results of the Survey

2.10.4 Findings

The result showed that the management of septage sludge in Phnom Penh is far from the satisfactory level. From the small amount of septage sludge brought in the SMCDS the team gathered that;

· Some septage sludge is dumped illegally somewhere, rather than brought to the SMCDS.

The necessary items PPWM should implement for the proper septage sludge management are summarized below.

· PPWM studies and understands the current situation of septage disposal and the use of septic tanks in the city.

· PPWM formulates a septage management plan and an action plan, which is in line with public and private sector partnership and should include a plan for the development of a new septage treatment and disposal facility. In addition, MPP allocates a budget for the implementation of the action plan, and PPWM puts it into action involving the private sector.

· Even though the total number of septage tank in the city is not known, it is clear that the capacity of the current septage collection system is too limited to collect the whole septage sludge generated in the city.

· The septage sludge treatment systems at the SMCDS is simple and effective. It is better for PPWM to consider their continuous use.

· Here are the preconditions for the calculation of septage sludge generation amount.

The daily generation amount of septage sludge is expected at 306m³/day as shown below.

The result is around 50 times as large as the current collection amount. It is obvious that the capacity of the septage sludge treatment facilities is too small to treat all the septage sludge generated in Phnom Penh. It is necessary for MPP/PPWM to prepare for the construction plan of the new septage sludge treatment facilities as soon as possible.

2.11 Other Studies

The team conducted the following additional surveys with C/P and research assistants in order to obtain the waste flow, which is necessary to formulate the M/P.

· Interview survey with waste depots along the access road to the SMC disposal site

Generation Source	Unit	Number of Generation Source	Generation Ratio			Daily Generation Amount (ton/day)
Generation Source	Unit	Number of Generation Source	Dry season	Rainy season	Average	Dry season	Rainy season	Average
Household Waste	g/person/day	1,199,414	498	476	487	597.3	570.9	584.1
Commercial Waste (Restaurant)	g/table/day	27,808	1,940	1,387	1,664	54.0	38.6	46.3
Commercial Waste (Other Shop)	g/shop/day	33,524	4,566	4,437	4,502	153.1	148.8	151.0
Market Waste	g/stall/day	51.766	1,700	1,945	1,823	88.0	100.7	94.4
School Waste	g/student/day	385,013	18	21	20	6,9	8.1	7.5
Street Sweeping Waste	g/km/day	56	47,235	59,510	53,373	2.6	3.3	3.0
Hotel Waste	g/room/day	13,385	199	263	231	2.7	3.5	3.1
Office Waste	g/office/day	368	2,946	4,174	3,560	1.1	1.5	1.3
Total						905.7	875.4	890.6

No.	Sample No.	Sampling Point & Location	Water Sources
1	LE1	Leachate south-west of SMC disposal site	WW
2	LE2	Leachate north of SMC disposal site	WW
3	LE3	Leachate north-east of SMC disposal site	WW
4	MW1	Existing well at the Health Care Center	GW
5	MW2	Existing well north-east of SMC disposal site	GW
6	MW3	Existing well east of SMC disposal site	GW
7	DR1	Canal east of SMC disposal site	WW+SW
8	DR2	A pond east of waste pile	WW+SW
9	NR1	Prek Thnot River 200m upstream of Prek Chrey Pagoda	SW
10	NR2	Irrigation canal at Choeung Ek Commune	SW

2. Field Investigations

2.1 Waste Amount and Composition Survey (Rainy and Dry Season)

2.1.1 Waste Amount Survey

a. Objective

b. Method of the Survey

c. Results

2.1.2. Waste Composition Survey a. Objectives

b. Method of the Survey

c. Result

2.1.1 Findings

a. Waste amount survey

b. Waste composition survey

General

Household waste

Other waste

2.2 Time and Motion Survey (Rainy and Dry Season)

2.2.1 Objective of the Survey

2.2.2 Method of the Survey

2.2.3 Results of the Survey

2.2.4 Findings of the Survey

2.3 Public Opinion Survey (POS)

2.3.1 Objective of the Survey

2.3.2 Method of the Survey

2.3.3 Results of the Survey

2.3.4 Findings of the Survey

2.4 Social Environmental Survey in and around the Final Disposal site

2.4.1 Objective of the Survey

a. Local Resident Survey

b. Waste Picker Survey

2.4.2 Method of the Survey

2.4.3 Results of the Survey

2.4.4 Findings of the Survey

a. Local Resident Survey

b. Waste Picker Survey

2.5 Cleansing Workers Survey

2.5.1 Objectives

2.5.2 Method of the Survey

2.5.3 Results of the Survey

2.5.4 Findings of the Survey

2.6 Medical Institutions Survey

2.6.1 Objectives and Definitions

a. Objectives of the Study

b. Definition of Waste Generated in Medical Institutions

2.6.2 Method of the Survey

2.6.3 Results of the Survey

a. Waste Generation

a.1 Waste Unit Generation Rate

a.1.1. Medical Waste

a.1.2. General Waste

a.2 Waste Generation Amount

a.2.1. Medical Waste

a.2.2. General Waste

b. Observations on Medical Waste Management

b.1 Medical Waste

b.1.1. Storage

d. Overall evaluation

2.7 Factory Survey

2.7.1 Objectives and Waste Flow

a. Objectives

b. Waste flow

c. Work Flow

2.7.2 Method of the Survey

2.7.3 Results of the Survey

2.7.4 Findings of the Survey

a. Current Industrial Waste Management (IWM)

a.1 Waste Separation

a.2 Storage, Intermediate Treatment and Reuse/Recycling

a.3 Collection, Off-site Treatment and Reuse/Recycling, Disposal

b. Future Management of IW

c. Financial Matters

d. Evaluation of the Present IW system

e. Waste Generation

e.1 Waste Unit Generation Rate

e.2 Waste Generation Amount

f. Waste Flow

2.8 Recycling Market Survey

2.8.1 Objectives of the Survey

2.8.2 Method of the Survey

2.8.3 Results of the Survey

2.8.4 Findings of the Survey

2.1.2. Waste Composition Survey
a. Objectives